diff --git a/sprout/compost/effects.hpp b/sprout/compost/effects.hpp
index 14af34a4..adda7b9d 100644
--- a/sprout/compost/effects.hpp
+++ b/sprout/compost/effects.hpp
@@ -2,18 +2,20 @@
 #define SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_HPP
 
 #include <sprout/config.hpp>
-#include <sprout/compost/effects/clip.hpp>
-#include <sprout/compost/effects/rectify.hpp>
-#include <sprout/compost/effects/change_volume.hpp>
-#include <sprout/compost/effects/reverb.hpp>
-#include <sprout/compost/effects/distort.hpp>
-#include <sprout/compost/effects/overdrive.hpp>
-#include <sprout/compost/effects/fuzz.hpp>
-#include <sprout/compost/effects/compress.hpp>
+#include <sprout/compost/effects/clipped.hpp>
+#include <sprout/compost/effects/rectified.hpp>
+#include <sprout/compost/effects/changed_volume.hpp>
+#include <sprout/compost/effects/reverbed.hpp>
+#include <sprout/compost/effects/distorted.hpp>
+#include <sprout/compost/effects/overdrived.hpp>
+#include <sprout/compost/effects/fuzzed.hpp>
+#include <sprout/compost/effects/compressed.hpp>
 #include <sprout/compost/effects/tremolo.hpp>
 #include <sprout/compost/effects/vibrato.hpp>
 #include <sprout/compost/effects/chorus.hpp>
-#include <sprout/compost/effects/noise_gate.hpp>
-#include <sprout/compost/effects/synthesize.hpp>
+#include <sprout/compost/effects/noise_gated.hpp>
+#include <sprout/compost/effects/synthesized.hpp>
+#include <sprout/compost/effects/jointed.hpp>
+#include <sprout/compost/effects/copied.hpp>
 
 #endif	// #ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_HPP
diff --git a/sprout/compost/effects/change_volume.hpp b/sprout/compost/effects/changed_volume.hpp
similarity index 88%
rename from sprout/compost/effects/change_volume.hpp
rename to sprout/compost/effects/changed_volume.hpp
index d13863dd..cbefe829 100644
--- a/sprout/compost/effects/change_volume.hpp
+++ b/sprout/compost/effects/changed_volume.hpp
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-#ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_CHANGE_VOLUME_HPP
-#define SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_CHANGE_VOLUME_HPP
+#ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_CHANGED_VOLUME_HPP
+#define SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_CHANGED_VOLUME_HPP
 
 #include <sprout/config.hpp>
 #include <sprout/functional/multiplies.hpp>
@@ -68,4 +68,4 @@ namespace sprout {
 	}	// namespace compost
 }	// namespace sprout
 
-#endif	// #ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_CHANGE_VOLUME_HPP
+#endif	// #ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_CHANGED_VOLUME_HPP
diff --git a/sprout/compost/effects/clip.hpp b/sprout/compost/effects/clipped.hpp
similarity index 89%
rename from sprout/compost/effects/clip.hpp
rename to sprout/compost/effects/clipped.hpp
index 37e6b38f..a66e2fa6 100644
--- a/sprout/compost/effects/clip.hpp
+++ b/sprout/compost/effects/clipped.hpp
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-#ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_CLIP_HPP
-#define SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_CLIP_HPP
+#ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_CLIPPED_HPP
+#define SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_CLIPPED_HPP
 
 #include <sprout/config.hpp>
 #include <sprout/utility/forward.hpp>
@@ -82,4 +82,4 @@ namespace sprout {
 	}	// namespace compost
 }	// namespace sprout
 
-#endif	// #ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_CLIP_HPP
+#endif	// #ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_CLIPPED_HPP
diff --git a/sprout/compost/effects/compress.hpp b/sprout/compost/effects/compressed.hpp
similarity index 92%
rename from sprout/compost/effects/compress.hpp
rename to sprout/compost/effects/compressed.hpp
index 86c8a724..7621c4e7 100644
--- a/sprout/compost/effects/compress.hpp
+++ b/sprout/compost/effects/compressed.hpp
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-#ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_COMPRESS_HPP
-#define SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_COMPRESS_HPP
+#ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_COMPRESEDS_HPP
+#define SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_COMPRESEDS_HPP
 
 #include <sprout/config.hpp>
 #include <sprout/utility/forward.hpp>
@@ -123,4 +123,4 @@ namespace sprout {
 	}	// namespace compost
 }	// namespace sprout
 
-#endif	// #ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_COMPRESS_HPP
+#endif	// #ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_COMPRESEDS_HPP
diff --git a/sprout/compost/effects/copied.hpp b/sprout/compost/effects/copied.hpp
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..ed975a65
--- /dev/null
+++ b/sprout/compost/effects/copied.hpp
@@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
+#ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_COPIED_HPP
+#define SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_COPIED_HPP
+
+#include <sprout/config.hpp>
+#include <sprout/range/adaptor/copied.hpp>
+
+namespace sprout {
+	namespace compost {
+		namespace effects {
+			//
+			// copied
+			//
+			namespace {
+				SPROUT_STATIC_CONSTEXPR sprout::adaptors::copied_forwarder copied{};
+			}	// anonymous-namespace
+		}	// namespace effects
+	}	// namespace compost
+}	// namespace sprout
+
+#endif	// #ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_COPIED_HPP
diff --git a/sprout/compost/effects/distort.hpp b/sprout/compost/effects/distorted.hpp
similarity index 85%
rename from sprout/compost/effects/distort.hpp
rename to sprout/compost/effects/distorted.hpp
index f6977655..ebe00376 100644
--- a/sprout/compost/effects/distort.hpp
+++ b/sprout/compost/effects/distorted.hpp
@@ -1,10 +1,10 @@
-#ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_DISTORT_HPP
-#define SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_DISTORT_HPP
+#ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_DISTORTED_HPP
+#define SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_DISTORTED_HPP
 
 #include <sprout/config.hpp>
 #include <sprout/utility/forward.hpp>
-#include <sprout/compost/effects/clip.hpp>
-#include <sprout/compost/effects/change_volume.hpp>
+#include <sprout/compost/effects/clipped.hpp>
+#include <sprout/compost/effects/changed_volume.hpp>
 
 namespace sprout {
 	namespace compost {
@@ -75,4 +75,4 @@ namespace sprout {
 	}	// namespace compost
 }	// namespace sprout
 
-#endif	// #ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_DISTORT_HPP
+#endif	// #ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_DISTORTED_HPP
diff --git a/sprout/compost/effects/fuzz.hpp b/sprout/compost/effects/fuzzed.hpp
similarity index 84%
rename from sprout/compost/effects/fuzz.hpp
rename to sprout/compost/effects/fuzzed.hpp
index b8b1c513..94e5feac 100644
--- a/sprout/compost/effects/fuzz.hpp
+++ b/sprout/compost/effects/fuzzed.hpp
@@ -1,11 +1,11 @@
-#ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_FUZZ_HPP
-#define SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_FUZZ_HPP
+#ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_FUZZED_HPP
+#define SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_FUZZED_HPP
 
 #include <sprout/config.hpp>
 #include <sprout/utility/forward.hpp>
 #include <sprout/range/adaptor/transformed.hpp>
-#include <sprout/compost/effects/rectify.hpp>
-#include <sprout/compost/effects/distort.hpp>
+#include <sprout/compost/effects/rectified.hpp>
+#include <sprout/compost/effects/distorted.hpp>
 
 namespace sprout {
 	namespace compost {
@@ -74,4 +74,4 @@ namespace sprout {
 	}	// namespace compost
 }	// namespace sprout
 
-#endif	// #ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_FUZZ_HPP
+#endif	// #ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_FUZZED_HPP
diff --git a/sprout/compost/effects/jointed.hpp b/sprout/compost/effects/jointed.hpp
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..0b43c92a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/sprout/compost/effects/jointed.hpp
@@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
+#ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_JOINTED_HPP
+#define SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_JOINTED_HPP
+
+#include <sprout/config.hpp>
+#include <sprout/range/adaptor/jointed.hpp>
+
+namespace sprout {
+	namespace compost {
+		namespace effects {
+			//
+			// jointed
+			//
+			namespace {
+				SPROUT_STATIC_CONSTEXPR sprout::adaptors::jointed_forwarder jointed{};
+			}	// anonymous-namespace
+		}	// namespace effects
+	}	// namespace compost
+}	// namespace sprout
+
+#endif	// #ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_JOINTED_HPP
diff --git a/sprout/compost/effects/noise_gate.hpp b/sprout/compost/effects/noise_gated.hpp
similarity index 91%
rename from sprout/compost/effects/noise_gate.hpp
rename to sprout/compost/effects/noise_gated.hpp
index e6eff75e..1301f601 100644
--- a/sprout/compost/effects/noise_gate.hpp
+++ b/sprout/compost/effects/noise_gated.hpp
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-#ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_NOISE_GATE_HPP
-#define SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_NOISE_GATE_HPP
+#ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_NOISE_GATED_HPP
+#define SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_NOISE_GATED_HPP
 
 #include <sprout/config.hpp>
 #include <sprout/utility/forward.hpp>
@@ -113,4 +113,4 @@ namespace sprout {
 	}	// namespace compost
 }	// namespace sprout
 
-#endif	// #ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_NOISE_GATE_HPP
+#endif	// #ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_NOISE_GATED_HPP
diff --git a/sprout/compost/effects/overdrive.hpp b/sprout/compost/effects/overdrived.hpp
similarity index 89%
rename from sprout/compost/effects/overdrive.hpp
rename to sprout/compost/effects/overdrived.hpp
index c7363e6e..ffabd17c 100644
--- a/sprout/compost/effects/overdrive.hpp
+++ b/sprout/compost/effects/overdrived.hpp
@@ -1,12 +1,12 @@
-#ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_OVERDRIVE_HPP
-#define SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_OVERDRIVE_HPP
+#ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_OVERDRIVED_HPP
+#define SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_OVERDRIVED_HPP
 
 #include <sprout/config.hpp>
 #include <sprout/utility/forward.hpp>
 #include <sprout/math/constants.hpp>
 #include <sprout/math/atan.hpp>
 #include <sprout/range/adaptor/transformed.hpp>
-#include <sprout/compost/effects/change_volume.hpp>
+#include <sprout/compost/effects/changed_volume.hpp>
 
 namespace sprout {
 	namespace compost {
@@ -103,4 +103,4 @@ namespace sprout {
 	}	// namespace compost
 }	// namespace sprout
 
-#endif	// #ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_OVERDRIVE_HPP
+#endif	// #ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_OVERDRIVED_HPP
diff --git a/sprout/compost/effects/rectify.hpp b/sprout/compost/effects/rectified.hpp
similarity index 86%
rename from sprout/compost/effects/rectify.hpp
rename to sprout/compost/effects/rectified.hpp
index 10b2cabb..622e6812 100644
--- a/sprout/compost/effects/rectify.hpp
+++ b/sprout/compost/effects/rectified.hpp
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-#ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_RECTIFY_HPP
-#define SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_RECTIFY_HPP
+#ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_RECTIFIED_HPP
+#define SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_RECTIFIED_HPP
 
 #include <sprout/config.hpp>
 #include <sprout/utility/forward.hpp>
@@ -63,4 +63,4 @@ namespace sprout {
 	}	// namespace compost
 }	// namespace sprout
 
-#endif	// #ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_RECTIFY_HPP
+#endif	// #ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_RECTIFIED_HPP
diff --git a/sprout/compost/effects/reverb.hpp b/sprout/compost/effects/reverbed.hpp
similarity index 93%
rename from sprout/compost/effects/reverb.hpp
rename to sprout/compost/effects/reverbed.hpp
index 73c0bb9f..256137d5 100644
--- a/sprout/compost/effects/reverb.hpp
+++ b/sprout/compost/effects/reverbed.hpp
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
-#ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_REVERB_HPP
-#define SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_REVERB_HPP
+#ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_REVERBED_HPP
+#define SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_REVERBED_HPP
 
 #include <cstddef>
 #include <iterator>
@@ -146,4 +146,4 @@ namespace sprout {
 	}	// namespace compost
 }	// namespace sprout
 
-#endif	// #ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_REVERB_HPP
+#endif	// #ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_EFFECTS_REVERBED_HPP
diff --git a/sprout/compost/effects/synthesize.hpp b/sprout/compost/effects/synthesized.hpp
similarity index 100%
rename from sprout/compost/effects/synthesize.hpp
rename to sprout/compost/effects/synthesized.hpp
diff --git a/sprout/compost/waves.hpp b/sprout/compost/waves.hpp
index d47e16ec..a423bf56 100644
--- a/sprout/compost/waves.hpp
+++ b/sprout/compost/waves.hpp
@@ -2,6 +2,7 @@
 #define SPROUT_COMPOST_WAVES_HPP
 
 #include <sprout/config.hpp>
+#include <sprout/compost/waves/blanked.hpp>
 #include <sprout/compost/waves/sinusoidal.hpp>
 #include <sprout/compost/waves/sawtooth_wave.hpp>
 #include <sprout/compost/waves/triangle_wave.hpp>
diff --git a/sprout/compost/waves/blanked.hpp b/sprout/compost/waves/blanked.hpp
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..730661bf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/sprout/compost/waves/blanked.hpp
@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+#ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_WAVES_BLANKED_HPP
+#define SPROUT_COMPOST_WAVES_BLANKED_HPP
+
+#include <sprout/config.hpp>
+#include <sprout/range/adaptor/blanked.hpp>
+
+namespace sprout {
+	namespace compost {
+		namespace waves {
+			//
+			// blanked_forwarder
+			//
+			class blanked_forwarder {
+			public:
+				SPROUT_CONSTEXPR sprout::adaptors::blanked_range<double>
+				operator()() const {
+					return sprout::adaptors::blanked_range<double>();
+				}
+				template<typename Difference>
+				SPROUT_CONSTEXPR sprout::adaptors::blanked_range<double>
+				operator()(Difference n) const {
+					return sprout::adaptors::blanked_range<double>(n);
+				}
+				template<typename T, typename Difference>
+				SPROUT_CONSTEXPR sprout::adaptors::blanked_range<T>
+				operator()(Difference n, T const& value) const {
+					return sprout::adaptors::blanked_range<T>(n, value);
+				}
+			};
+
+			//
+			// blanked
+			//
+			namespace {
+			SPROUT_STATIC_CONSTEXPR sprout::compost::waves::blanked_forwarder blanked{};
+			}	// anonymous-namespace
+		}	// namespace waves
+	}	// namespace compost
+}	// namespace sprout
+
+#endif	// #ifndef SPROUT_COMPOST_WAVES_BLANKED_HPP
diff --git a/sprout/iterator/joint_iterator.hpp b/sprout/iterator/joint_iterator.hpp
index 802a5bd3..1fd636fb 100644
--- a/sprout/iterator/joint_iterator.hpp
+++ b/sprout/iterator/joint_iterator.hpp
@@ -10,6 +10,7 @@
 #include <sprout/iterator/distance.hpp>
 #include <sprout/iterator/type_traits/common.hpp>
 #include <sprout/utility/swap.hpp>
+#include <sprout/type_traits/arithmetic_promote.hpp>
 #include HDR_ITERATOR_SSCRISK_CEL_OR_SPROUT
 
 namespace sprout {
@@ -254,7 +255,7 @@ namespace sprout {
 		typename LIterator1, typename RIterator1,
 		typename LIterator2, typename RIterator2
 	>
-	inline SPROUT_CONSTEXPR typename std::common_type<
+	inline SPROUT_CONSTEXPR typename sprout::arithmetic_promote<
 		typename sprout::joint_iterator<LIterator1, RIterator1>::difference_type,
 		typename sprout::joint_iterator<LIterator2, RIterator2>::difference_type
 	>::type
diff --git a/sprout/iterator/traits.hpp b/sprout/iterator/traits.hpp
deleted file mode 100644
index ce473c08..00000000
--- a/sprout/iterator/traits.hpp
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,248 +0,0 @@
-#ifndef SPROUT_ITERATOR_TRAITS_HPP
-#define SPROUT_ITERATOR_TRAITS_HPP
-
-#include <iterator>
-#include <type_traits>
-#include <sprout/config.hpp>
-#include <sprout/type_traits/has_xxx.hpp>
-
-namespace sprout {
-	namespace detail {
-		// has_iterator_category
-		SPROUT_HAS_XXX_TYPE_DEF_LAZY(iterator_category);
-	}	// namespace detail
-	//
-	// is_iterator
-	//
-	template<typename Iterator>
-	struct is_iterator
-		: sprout::detail::has_iterator_category<std::iterator_traits<Iterator> >
-	{};
-
-	//
-	// is_input_iterator_category
-	//
-	template<typename Category>
-	struct is_input_iterator_category
-		: public std::is_convertible<Category, std::input_iterator_tag>
-	{};
-	//
-	// is_output_iterator_category
-	//
-	template<typename Category>
-	struct is_output_iterator_category
-		: public std::is_convertible<Category, std::output_iterator_tag>
-	{};
-	//
-	// is_forward_iterator_category
-	//
-	template<typename Category>
-	struct is_forward_iterator_category
-		: public std::is_convertible<Category, std::forward_iterator_tag>
-	{};
-	//
-	// is_bidirectional_iterator_category
-	//
-	template<typename Category>
-	struct is_bidirectional_iterator_category
-		: public std::is_convertible<Category, std::bidirectional_iterator_tag>
-	{};
-	//
-	// is_random_access_iterator_category
-	//
-	template<typename Category>
-	struct is_random_access_iterator_category
-		: public std::is_convertible<Category, std::random_access_iterator_tag>
-	{};
-
-	//
-	// is_input_iterator
-	//
-	template<typename Iterator>
-	struct is_input_iterator
-		: public sprout::is_input_iterator_category<typename std::iterator_traits<Iterator>::iterator_category>
-	{};
-	//
-	// is_output_iterator
-	//
-	template<typename Iterator>
-	struct is_output_iterator
-		: public sprout::is_output_iterator_category<typename std::iterator_traits<Iterator>::iterator_category>
-	{};
-	//
-	// is_forward_iterator
-	//
-	template<typename Iterator>
-	struct is_forward_iterator
-		: public sprout::is_forward_iterator_category<typename std::iterator_traits<Iterator>::iterator_category>
-	{};
-	//
-	// is_bidirectional_iterator
-	//
-	template<typename Iterator>
-	struct is_bidirectional_iterator
-		: public sprout::is_bidirectional_iterator_category<typename std::iterator_traits<Iterator>::iterator_category>
-	{};
-	//
-	// is_random_access_iterator
-	//
-	template<typename Iterator>
-	struct is_random_access_iterator
-		: public sprout::is_random_access_iterator_category<typename std::iterator_traits<Iterator>::iterator_category>
-	{};
-
-	namespace detail {
-		template<typename Category, bool IsRandomAccess, bool IsBidirectional, bool IsForward, bool IsSinglePassOrIncrementable>
-		struct iterator_category_hierarchy_impl;
-		template<typename Category, bool IsBidirectional, bool IsForward, bool IsSinglePassOrIncrementable>
-		struct iterator_category_hierarchy_impl<Category, true, IsBidirectional, IsForward, IsSinglePassOrIncrementable>
-			: public std::integral_constant<int, 4>
-		{};
-		template<typename Category, bool IsForward, bool IsSinglePassOrIncrementable>
-		struct iterator_category_hierarchy_impl<Category, false, true, IsForward, IsSinglePassOrIncrementable>
-			: public std::integral_constant<int, 3>
-		{};
-		template<typename Category, bool IsSinglePassOrIncrementable>
-		struct iterator_category_hierarchy_impl<Category, false, false, true, IsSinglePassOrIncrementable>
-			: public std::integral_constant<int, 2>
-		{};
-		template<typename Category>
-		struct iterator_category_hierarchy_impl<Category, false, false, false, true>
-			: public std::integral_constant<int, 1>
-		{};
-
-		template<typename Category>
-		struct iterator_category_hierarchy
-			: public sprout::detail::iterator_category_hierarchy_impl<
-				Category,
-				sprout::is_random_access_iterator_category<Category>::value,
-				sprout::is_bidirectional_iterator_category<Category>::value,
-				sprout::is_forward_iterator_category<Category>::value,
-				sprout::is_input_iterator_category<Category>::value || sprout::is_output_iterator_category<Category>::value
-			>
-		{};
-
-		template<typename Category1, typename Category2>
-		struct iterator_category_less
-			: public std::integral_constant<
-				bool,
-				(sprout::detail::iterator_category_hierarchy<Category1>::value < sprout::detail::iterator_category_hierarchy<Category2>::value)
-			>
-		{};
-	}	// namespace detail
-	//
-	// min_iterator_category
-	//
-	template<typename Head, typename... Tail>
-	struct min_iterator_category;
-	template<typename Category>
-	struct min_iterator_category<Category>
-		: public std::common_type<Category>
-	{};
-	template<typename Category1, typename Category2>
-	struct min_iterator_category<Category1, Category2>
-		: public std::conditional<
-			sprout::detail::iterator_category_less<Category1, Category2>::value,
-			Category1, Category2
-		>
-	{};
-	template<typename Head, typename... Tail>
-	struct min_iterator_category
-		: public sprout::min_iterator_category<
-			Head,
-			typename sprout::min_iterator_category<Tail...>::type
-		>
-	{};
-
-	//
-	// common_iterator_category
-	//
-	template<typename... Iterators>
-	struct common_iterator_category
-		: public sprout::min_iterator_category<
-			typename std::iterator_traits<Iterators>::iterator_category...
-		>
-	{};
-
-	namespace detail {
-		template<typename... Types>
-		struct common_iterator_reference_impl;
-		template<typename T>
-		struct common_iterator_reference_impl<T> {
-		public:
-			typedef T type;
-		};
-		template<typename T, typename U>
-		struct common_iterator_reference_impl<T, U>
-			: public std::conditional<
-				std::is_reference<T>::value && std::is_reference<U>::value,
-				typename std::conditional<
-					std::is_convertible<T, U>::value
-						&& (std::is_same<typename std::decay<T>::type, typename std::decay<U>::type>::value
-							|| std::is_base_of<typename std::decay<U>::type, typename std::decay<T>::type>::value
-							)
-						,
-					U,
-					typename std::conditional<
-						std::is_convertible<U, T>::value
-							&& (std::is_same<typename std::decay<U>::type, typename std::decay<T>::type>::value
-								|| std::is_base_of<typename std::decay<T>::type, typename std::decay<U>::type>::value
-								)
-							,
-						T,
-						typename std::common_type<typename std::decay<T>::type, typename std::decay<U>::type>::type
-					>::type
-				>::type,
-				typename std::common_type<typename std::decay<T>::type, typename std::decay<U>::type>::type
-			>
-		{};
-		template<typename T, typename U, typename... Tail>
-		struct common_iterator_reference_impl<T, U, Tail...>
-			: public sprout::detail::common_iterator_reference_impl<
-				typename sprout::detail::common_iterator_reference_impl<T, U>::type,
-				Tail...
-			>
-		{};
-	}	// namespace detail
-	//
-	// common_iterator_reference
-	//
-	template<typename... Iterators>
-	struct common_iterator_reference
-		: public sprout::detail::common_iterator_reference_impl<
-			typename std::iterator_traits<Iterators>::reference...
-		>
-	{};
-
-	//
-	// common_iterator_value_type
-	//
-	template<typename... Iterators>
-	struct common_iterator_value_type
-		: public std::decay<
-			typename sprout::common_iterator_reference<Iterators...>::type
-		>
-	{};
-
-	//
-	// common_iterator_pointer
-	//
-	template<typename... Iterators>
-	struct common_iterator_pointer
-		: public std::add_pointer<
-			typename std::remove_reference<typename sprout::common_iterator_reference<Iterators...>::type>::type
-		>
-	{};
-
-	//
-	// common_iterator_difference_type
-	//
-	template<typename... Iterators>
-	struct common_iterator_difference_type
-		: public std::common_type<
-			typename std::iterator_traits<Iterators>::difference_type...
-		>
-	{};
-}	// namespace sprout
-
-#endif	// #ifndef SPROUT_ITERATOR_TRAITS_HPP
diff --git a/sprout/iterator/type_traits/common.hpp b/sprout/iterator/type_traits/common.hpp
index 177f51d6..b7e228b9 100644
--- a/sprout/iterator/type_traits/common.hpp
+++ b/sprout/iterator/type_traits/common.hpp
@@ -106,10 +106,10 @@ namespace sprout {
 								)
 							,
 						T,
-						typename std::common_type<typename std::decay<T>::type, typename std::decay<U>::type>::type
+						typename std::decay<typename std::common_type<typename std::decay<T>::type, typename std::decay<U>::type>::type>::type
 					>::type
 				>::type,
-				typename std::common_type<typename std::decay<T>::type, typename std::decay<U>::type>::type
+				typename std::decay<typename std::common_type<typename std::decay<T>::type, typename std::decay<U>::type>::type>::type
 			>
 		{};
 		template<typename T, typename U, typename... Tail>
@@ -155,8 +155,8 @@ namespace sprout {
 	//
 	template<typename... Iterators>
 	struct common_iterator_difference_type
-		: public std::common_type<
-			typename std::iterator_traits<Iterators>::difference_type...
+		: public std::decay<
+			typename std::common_type<typename std::iterator_traits<Iterators>::difference_type...>::type
 		>
 	{};
 }	// namespace sprout
diff --git a/sprout/pit.hpp b/sprout/pit.hpp
index 62f59d3b..71b7bc51 100644
--- a/sprout/pit.hpp
+++ b/sprout/pit.hpp
@@ -8,6 +8,5 @@
 #include <sprout/pit/tuple.hpp>
 #include <sprout/pit/container.hpp>
 #include <sprout/pit/type_traits.hpp>
-#include <sprout/pit/blank.hpp>
 
 #endif	// #ifndef SPROUT_PIT_HPP
diff --git a/sprout/pit/blank.hpp b/sprout/pit/blank.hpp
deleted file mode 100644
index 18c8334c..00000000
--- a/sprout/pit/blank.hpp
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,25 +0,0 @@
-#ifndef SPROUT_PIT_BLANK_HPP
-#define SPROUT_PIT_BLANK_HPP
-
-#include <cstddef>
-#include <sprout/config.hpp>
-#include <sprout/array.hpp>
-#include <sprout/pit/pit.hpp>
-
-namespace sprout {
-	//
-	// blank
-	//
-	struct blank {};
-
-	//
-	// blank_pit
-	//
-	template<std::size_t N>
-	inline SPROUT_CONSTEXPR sprout::pit<sprout::array<sprout::blank, N> >
-	blank_pit() {
-		return sprout::pit<sprout::array<sprout::blank, N> >();
-	}
-}	// namespace sprout
-
-#endif	// #ifndef SPROUT_PIT_BLANK_HPP
diff --git a/sprout/pit/pit.hpp b/sprout/pit/pit.hpp
index 15936a66..b7cdef0f 100644
--- a/sprout/pit/pit.hpp
+++ b/sprout/pit/pit.hpp
@@ -49,10 +49,10 @@ namespace sprout {
 			return const_iterator(elem, static_size);
 		}
 		iterator end() SPROUT_NOEXCEPT {
-			return iterator();
+			return iterator(elem, 0);
 		}
 		SPROUT_CONSTEXPR const_iterator end() const SPROUT_NOEXCEPT {
-			return const_iterator();
+			return const_iterator(elem, 0);
 		}
 		reverse_iterator rbegin() SPROUT_NOEXCEPT {
 			return reverse_iterator(end());
@@ -70,7 +70,7 @@ namespace sprout {
 			return const_iterator(elem, static_size);
 		}
 		SPROUT_CONSTEXPR const_iterator cend() const SPROUT_NOEXCEPT {
-			return const_iterator();
+			return const_iterator(elem, 0);
 		}
 		SPROUT_CONSTEXPR const_reverse_iterator crbegin() const SPROUT_NOEXCEPT {
 			return const_reverse_iterator(end());
diff --git a/sprout/range/adaptor.hpp b/sprout/range/adaptor.hpp
index 6e275f30..83bc982c 100644
--- a/sprout/range/adaptor.hpp
+++ b/sprout/range/adaptor.hpp
@@ -10,10 +10,11 @@
 #include <sprout/range/adaptor/filtered.hpp>
 #include <sprout/range/adaptor/counting.hpp>
 #include <sprout/range/adaptor/outdirected.hpp>
-#include <sprout/range/adaptor/indexed.hpp>
-#include <sprout/range/adaptor/valued.hpp>
 #include <sprout/range/adaptor/jointed.hpp>
 #include <sprout/range/adaptor/deep_copied.hpp>
+#include <sprout/range/adaptor/indexed.hpp>
+#include <sprout/range/adaptor/valued.hpp>
+#include <sprout/range/adaptor/blanked.hpp>
 #include <sprout/range/adaptor/sized.hpp>
 #include <sprout/range/adaptor/size_enumed.hpp>
 #include <sprout/range/adaptor/wave.hpp>
diff --git a/sprout/range/adaptor/blanked.hpp b/sprout/range/adaptor/blanked.hpp
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..81acdcfb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/sprout/range/adaptor/blanked.hpp
@@ -0,0 +1,189 @@
+#ifndef SPROUT_RANGE_ADAPTOR_BLANKED_HPP
+#define SPROUT_RANGE_ADAPTOR_BLANKED_HPP
+
+#include <type_traits>
+#include <sprout/config.hpp>
+#include <sprout/pit.hpp>
+#include <sprout/container/traits.hpp>
+#include <sprout/container/functions.hpp>
+#include <sprout/iterator/value_iterator.hpp>
+#include <sprout/range/range_container.hpp>
+#include <sprout/range/algorithm/copy.hpp>
+#include <sprout/type_traits/lvalue_reference.hpp>
+#include <sprout/utility/forward.hpp>
+#include <sprout/utility/lvalue_forward.hpp>
+#include HDR_ALGORITHM_SSCRISK_CEL_OR_SPROUT
+
+namespace sprout {
+	//
+	// blank_t
+	//
+	struct blank_t {};
+
+	namespace adaptors {
+		//
+		// blanked_range
+		//
+		template<typename T = sprout::blank_t, typename Range = void>
+		class blanked_range
+			: public sprout::range::range_container<
+				sprout::value_iterator<T>
+			>
+			, public sprout::detail::container_nosy_static_size<Range>
+			, public sprout::detail::container_nosy_fixed_size<Range>
+		{
+		public:
+			typedef Range range_type;
+			typedef sprout::range::range_container<
+				sprout::value_iterator<T>
+			> base_type;
+			typedef typename base_type::iterator iterator;
+			typedef typename base_type::value_type value_type;
+			typedef typename base_type::difference_type difference_type;
+			typedef typename base_type::size_type size_type;
+		public:
+			blanked_range() = default;
+			blanked_range(blanked_range const&) = default;
+			explicit SPROUT_CONSTEXPR blanked_range(range_type& range)
+				: base_type(
+					iterator(value_type(), sprout::size(range)),
+					iterator(value_type(), 0)
+					)
+			{}
+			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR blanked_range(
+				range_type& range,
+				difference_type n
+				)
+				: base_type(
+					iterator(value_type(), static_cast<difference_type>(NS_SSCRISK_CEL_OR_SPROUT::min<size_type>(n, sprout::size(range)))),
+					iterator(value_type(), 0)
+					)
+			{}
+			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR blanked_range(
+				range_type& range,
+				difference_type n,
+				value_type const& value
+				)
+				: base_type(
+					iterator(value, static_cast<difference_type>(NS_SSCRISK_CEL_OR_SPROUT::min<size_type>(n, sprout::size(range)))),
+					iterator(value, 0)
+					)
+			{}
+		};
+
+		template<typename T>
+		class blanked_range<T, void>
+			: public sprout::range::range_container<
+				sprout::value_iterator<T>
+			>
+		{
+		public:
+			typedef sprout::range::range_container<
+				sprout::value_iterator<T>
+			> base_type;
+			typedef typename base_type::iterator iterator;
+			typedef typename base_type::value_type value_type;
+			typedef typename base_type::difference_type difference_type;
+		public:
+			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR blanked_range()
+				: base_type(
+					iterator(value_type()),
+					iterator(value_type(), 0)
+					)
+			{}
+			blanked_range(blanked_range const&) = default;
+			explicit SPROUT_CONSTEXPR blanked_range(difference_type n)
+				: base_type(
+					iterator(value_type(), n),
+					iterator(value_type(), 0)
+					)
+			{}
+			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR blanked_range(
+				difference_type n,
+				value_type const& value
+				)
+				: base_type(
+					iterator(value, n),
+					iterator(value, 0)
+					)
+			{}
+		};
+
+		//
+		// blanked_forwarder
+		//
+		class blanked_forwarder {
+		public:
+			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR sprout::adaptors::blanked_range<>
+			operator()() const {
+				return sprout::adaptors::blanked_range<>();
+			}
+			template<typename Difference>
+			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR sprout::adaptors::blanked_range<>
+			operator()(Difference n) const {
+				return sprout::adaptors::blanked_range<>(n);
+			}
+			template<typename T, typename Difference>
+			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR sprout::adaptors::blanked_range<T>
+			operator()(Difference n, T const& value) const {
+				return sprout::adaptors::blanked_range<T>(n, value);
+			}
+		};
+
+		//
+		// blanked
+		//
+		namespace {
+			SPROUT_STATIC_CONSTEXPR sprout::adaptors::blanked_forwarder blanked{};
+		}	// anonymous-namespace
+
+		//
+		// operator|
+		//
+		template<typename Range, typename T>
+		inline SPROUT_CONSTEXPR sprout::adaptors::blanked_range<
+			T,
+			typename std::remove_reference<typename sprout::lvalue_reference<Range>::type>::type
+		>
+		operator|(Range&& lhs, sprout::adaptors::blanked_range<T> const& rhs) {
+			return sprout::adaptors::blanked_range<
+				T,
+				typename std::remove_reference<typename sprout::lvalue_reference<Range>::type>::type
+			>(
+				sprout::lvalue_forward<Range>(lhs),
+				sprout::size(rhs),
+				!sprout::empty(rhs) ? *rhs.begin()
+					: typename sprout::container_traits<sprout::adaptors::blanked_range<T> >::value_type()
+				);
+		}
+	}	// namespace adaptors
+
+	//
+	// container_construct_traits
+	//
+	template<typename T, typename Range>
+	struct container_construct_traits<sprout::adaptors::blanked_range<T, Range> > {
+	public:
+		typedef typename sprout::container_construct_traits<Range>::copied_type copied_type;
+	public:
+		template<typename Cont>
+		static SPROUT_CONSTEXPR copied_type deep_copy(Cont&& cont) {
+			return sprout::range::fixed::copy(sprout::forward<Cont>(cont), sprout::pit<copied_type>());
+		}
+		template<typename... Args>
+		static SPROUT_CONSTEXPR copied_type make(Args&&... args) {
+			return sprout::make<copied_type>(sprout::forward<Args>(args)...);
+		}
+		template<typename Cont, typename... Args>
+		static SPROUT_CONSTEXPR copied_type remake(
+			Cont&& cont,
+			typename sprout::container_traits<sprout::adaptors::blanked_range<T, Range> >::difference_type size,
+			Args&&... args
+			)
+		{
+			return sprout::remake<copied_type>(sprout::forward<Cont>(cont), size, sprout::forward<Args>(args)...);
+		}
+	};
+}	// namespace sprout
+
+#endif	// #ifndef SPROUT_RANGE_ADAPTOR_BLANKED_HPP
diff --git a/sprout/range/adaptor/sawtooth_wave.hpp b/sprout/range/adaptor/sawtooth_wave.hpp
index 2836559c..03a47ac9 100644
--- a/sprout/range/adaptor/sawtooth_wave.hpp
+++ b/sprout/range/adaptor/sawtooth_wave.hpp
@@ -48,13 +48,13 @@ namespace sprout {
 					iterator(sprout::size(range), frequency, amplitude, phase)
 					)
 			{}
-			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type const& frequency() const {
+			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type frequency() const {
 				return base_type::begin().frequency();
 			}
-			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type const& amplitude() const {
+			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type amplitude() const {
 				return base_type::begin().amplitude();
 			}
-			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type const& phase() const {
+			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type phase() const {
 				return base_type::begin().phase();
 			}
 		};
diff --git a/sprout/range/adaptor/sinusoidal.hpp b/sprout/range/adaptor/sinusoidal.hpp
index 99feec88..aa7a01c0 100644
--- a/sprout/range/adaptor/sinusoidal.hpp
+++ b/sprout/range/adaptor/sinusoidal.hpp
@@ -48,13 +48,13 @@ namespace sprout {
 					iterator(sprout::size(range), frequency, amplitude, phase)
 					)
 			{}
-			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type const& frequency() const {
+			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type frequency() const {
 				return base_type::begin().frequency();
 			}
-			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type const& amplitude() const {
+			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type amplitude() const {
 				return base_type::begin().amplitude();
 			}
-			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type const& phase() const {
+			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type phase() const {
 				return base_type::begin().phase();
 			}
 		};
@@ -85,13 +85,13 @@ namespace sprout {
 					iterator(-1, frequency, amplitude, phase)
 					)
 			{}
-			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type const& frequency() const {
+			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type frequency() const {
 				return base_type::begin().frequency();
 			}
-			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type const& amplitude() const {
+			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type amplitude() const {
 				return base_type::begin().amplitude();
 			}
-			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type const& phase() const {
+			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type phase() const {
 				return base_type::begin().phase();
 			}
 		};
diff --git a/sprout/range/adaptor/square_wave.hpp b/sprout/range/adaptor/square_wave.hpp
index 55a26da4..e0b6b540 100644
--- a/sprout/range/adaptor/square_wave.hpp
+++ b/sprout/range/adaptor/square_wave.hpp
@@ -49,16 +49,16 @@ namespace sprout {
 					iterator(sprout::size(range), frequency, amplitude, phase, duty)
 					)
 			{}
-			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type const& frequency() const {
+			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type frequency() const {
 				return base_type::begin().frequency();
 			}
-			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type const& amplitude() const {
+			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type amplitude() const {
 				return base_type::begin().amplitude();
 			}
-			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type const& phase() const {
+			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type phase() const {
 				return base_type::begin().phase();
 			}
-			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type const& duty() const {
+			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type duty() const {
 				return base_type::begin().duty();
 			}
 		};
@@ -90,16 +90,16 @@ namespace sprout {
 					iterator(-1, frequency, amplitude, phase, duty)
 					)
 			{}
-			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type const& frequency() const {
+			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type frequency() const {
 				return base_type::begin().frequency();
 			}
-			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type const& amplitude() const {
+			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type amplitude() const {
 				return base_type::begin().amplitude();
 			}
-			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type const& phase() const {
+			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type phase() const {
 				return base_type::begin().phase();
 			}
-			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type const& duty() const {
+			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type duty() const {
 				return base_type::begin().duty();
 			}
 		};
diff --git a/sprout/range/adaptor/triangle_wave.hpp b/sprout/range/adaptor/triangle_wave.hpp
index ea9723ae..6c52cd7e 100644
--- a/sprout/range/adaptor/triangle_wave.hpp
+++ b/sprout/range/adaptor/triangle_wave.hpp
@@ -48,13 +48,13 @@ namespace sprout {
 					iterator(sprout::size(range), frequency, amplitude, phase)
 					)
 			{}
-			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type const& frequency() const {
+			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type frequency() const {
 				return base_type::begin().frequency();
 			}
-			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type const& amplitude() const {
+			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type amplitude() const {
 				return base_type::begin().amplitude();
 			}
-			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type const& phase() const {
+			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type phase() const {
 				return base_type::begin().phase();
 			}
 		};
@@ -85,13 +85,13 @@ namespace sprout {
 					iterator(-1, frequency, amplitude, phase)
 					)
 			{}
-			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type const& frequency() const {
+			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type frequency() const {
 				return base_type::begin().frequency();
 			}
-			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type const& amplitude() const {
+			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type amplitude() const {
 				return base_type::begin().amplitude();
 			}
-			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type const& phase() const {
+			SPROUT_CONSTEXPR value_type phase() const {
 				return base_type::begin().phase();
 			}
 		};